This phase stands characterized by a centralized authority and increasingly urban quality of life. Trade networks had been established and there are also pieces of evidence of the cultivation of crops. Peas, sesame seeds, dates, cotton, etc.
Kot Diji represents the phase leading up to the Mature Harappan Phase. The early Harappan communities were turned into large urban centers, like Harappa and Mohenjodaro in Pakistan and Lothal in India. The signs of a gradual decline of the Indus River Valley Civilization are believed to have started around BC and by BC, most of the cities were abandoned.
However, one can see the various elements of the Ancient Indus Valley Civilization in later cultures. Archaeological data indicates the persistence of the Late Harappan culture until BC.
Town Planning and Structures T he Harappan culture was distinguished by its system of town planning. Harappa and Mohenjodaro each had its own citadel or acropolis , which was possibly occupied by members of the ruling class.
Below the citadel in each city lay a lower town containing brick houses , which were inhabited by the common people. The remarkable thing about the arrangement of the houses in the cities is that they followed the grid system.
Granaries constituted an important part of the Harappan cities. The use of burnt bricks in the Harappan cities is remarkable, because in the contemporary buildings of Egypt mainly dried bricks were used. The drainage system of Mohenjodaro was very impressive. In almost all cities every big or small house had its own courtyard and bathroom. In Kalibangan many houses had their wells.
At sites such as Dholavira and Lothal Gujarat , the entire settlement was fortified, and sections within the town were also separated by walls. Agriculture The Harappan villages, mostly situated near the flood plains, produced sufficient food grains. Wheat, barley, rai, peas, sesame, lentil, chickpea, and mustard were produced. Millets are also found from sites in Gujarat. While rice uses were relatively rare. The Indus people were the earliest people to produce cotton.
While the prevalence of agriculture is indicated by finds of grain, it is more difficult to reconstruct actual agricultural practices. Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was known, and archaeologists extrapolate shows oxen were also used for plowing. Most Harappan sites are located in semi-arid lands, where irrigation was probably required for agriculture. Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan, but not in Punjab or Sindh.
Although the Harappans practiced agriculture, animals were also reared on a large scale. Evidence of the horse comes from a superficial level of Mohenjodaro and from a doubtful terracotta figurine from Lothal. In any case, the Harappan culture was not horse centered. Economy The importance of trade in the life of the Indus people is witnessed by the presence of numerous seals, uniform script and regulated weights and measures in a wide area.
The Harappans carried on a considerable trade in stone, metal, shell, etc. Metal money was not used and trade was carried by a barter system. They practiced navigation on the coast of the Arabian Sea. They had set up a trading colony in northern Afghanistan which evidently facilitated trade with Central Asia.
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The Age of Reason, 8. The Age of Voltaire, Rousseau and Revolution, The Age of Napoleon. Reviewer: Frenchkiller - favorite favorite favorite favorite favorite - February 1, Subject: The Great, Great Will Durant For anyone who loves learning about history without tedium or dry historical facts, Will Durant and his wife Ethel, or Ariel, as Will named her are God sends. They write history with all the skills of a great novelist. Their works are absolute page turners.
Reviewer: Peter68 - favorite favorite favorite favorite favorite - October 26, Subject: Thank you Thank you to give us very good collection. I have several books and have gone through two highlighter pens. I figured it would be quicker and cheaper if I downloaded the books digitally.
Will grew up in another age, and yes, you may find an objectionable line here and there, but his work stands solidly upon the research of Will and his wife. No matter what we read, the author or authors twist their work to suit their values.
It is up to us, the reader, to recognize dated remarks and move on. Durant is one of the masters of prose and a remarkable storyteller. Anyone who loves to read should not go through this life without reading at least one of Will Durant's works.
Reviewer: sigusmundo - favorite favorite favorite favorite favorite - February 22, Subject: Well Worth a Year Spent Consuming These Volumes As full of wonder and quotable prose as any other work you will ever read.
Yes, the books have a fair share of misogyny and racism, homophobia and anti-communist propagandizing as one might expect from anything published during it's tenor.
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